However, Cr(III) have higher protein affinity to form metal-protein complex which tends to make it retain in the skin epidermis. In a normal skin condition, Cr(VI) ions tend to have higher solubility and percutaneous permeability than Cr(III) ions. There are many factors involved in the penetration process including concentration of chromium species, medium (solvent and pH), intrinsic properties of chromium species (molecular volume of chromium species, counter ion, nature of chemical bond and polarity, solubility, and valence), reactivity towards protein, previous penetration or accumulation, skin characteristics (gender and race, age skin, density of sebaceous gland, thickness of skin, and anatomy of skin), and environmental factors (temperature, humidity, and UV radiation). The penetration of chromium species either as particulate or soluble forms occurred via three possible routes including transcellular by crossing the cell, intercellular by partitioning into the lipid matrix, and transappendageal by entering hair follicle and sebaceous glands. Chromium species are then accumulated on the skin surface or penetrated into the skin layers mediated by sweat or other biological fluids. In these cases, direct dermal exposure would cause contact dermatitis, irritation, and skin cancer, while systemic administration would elicit systemic contact dermatitis and skin tumor.ĭermal exposure ( Figure 1) is initiated from direct contact of chromium sources on the skin. In general, exposure route of chromium that comes from these sources can be classified into two pathways including dermal and systemic pathways. Various sources of chromium that affect or may affect the skin have been identified and tabulated in several review. In modern life, chromium has been used in many forms and applications with Cr(0), Cr(III), and Cr(VI) as the main oxidation states. Source and exposure route of chromium in the skin In this chapter, both toxicity and biological activity of chromium species in the skin are described starting from the source and route of exposure, toxicity and its possible treatment, and biological activity.Ģ.
In the same way, any topical or systemic administration of chromium compounds also can exhibit a beneficial effect for the skin such as antiacne, rapid wound healing, and anti-aging. Īs the outermost organ that protects the human body from various pollutants, the skin is usually exposed to various sources of chromium, and it causes many dermatological acute and chronic negative effects such as contact dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, and possibly skin cancer. Chromium(III) in this compound tend to accumulate in male Sprague-Dawley rats’ cells over the period of investigation and may be oxidized to more carcinogenic chromium(V) and chromium(VI) within the cells. Chromium picolinate, for instance, has been mainly used as food supplement. Meanwhile, accumulation of less toxic chromium species in relatively high concentration will still produce a negative effect in the accumulation site. In this case, chromium species have its optimum concentration to produce beneficial effects. The toxicity and biological activity of chromium seem to be correlated directly with the concentration of corresponding chromium species. Various studies have shown that numerous acute and chronic adverse effects can be caused by any dermal or systemic exposure of chromium species in human organ systems. As an essential micronutrient, a low dietary of chromium will exhibit several adverse effects such as glucose intolerance, growth disorders, diminished longevity, etc.Ĭhromium toxicity has been a controversial problem due to its status as an essential micronutrient. Chromium, especially for chromium(III), also showed certain biological activity especially in regulating carbohydrates and lipid metabolism. In industrial sectors, chromium-based materials have been used as coating material for corrosion resistant, pigments and dyes, wood preservatives, tanning agent, catalyst, and medical apparatus. Chromium with 0, +3, and +6 oxidation states are most commonly found and utilized in ambient conditions. Chromium can form several species with different oxidation states from −4 to +6. Chromium is a unique transition metal with relatively high abundance on earth crust (1.4 × 10 −2%).
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